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History as Ancient as the Hills |
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Nepal’s
early history is so intertwined with legend, that it is sometimes
almost impossible to separate fact from myth. A good example
of this mingling of fact and fiction is the legend about the
origin of the Kathmandu Valley. Legend
has it that the Kathmandu Valley was once a large lake surrounded
by mountains. It was known as Nag Hrat – ‘Tank of Serpents’
– as nagas or magical snake-beings were said to guard
treasure lying at the bottom of the lake. The Buddha dropped
a lotus seed into this lake, and it bloomed into a thousand-petalled
lotus of blazing light. Centuries later, the Boddhisatva Manjushri
arrived from the north and with a single stroke of his Sword
of Wisdom, cut a gorge in the mountainous ring around the lake.
The waters of the lake rushed out, leaving a flat and fertile
bowl that is Kathmandu today. Whether it was really Manjushri
who created the valley is also a matter of controversy. The
Hindu belief is that it was Krishna who created the valley by
throwing a thunderbolt that created the Chobar Gorge. Legend
aside, the scientific view is that the valley was actually under
water once and that its rivers do flow southward through the
Chobar Gorge.
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| The
Kiratis |
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Nepal’s
earliest recorded history begins with a mention of the Kiratis,
a Mongoloid people who arrived there around the 7th
or 8th century BCE (before the common era). Very
little is known about them, apart from the fact that they were
the first rulers of the Kathmandu Valley. Their first king Yalambar
is mentioned in the Hindu epic Mahabharata.
It was
during this period that Buddhism first arrived in Nepal. In
fact, it is believed that Buddha and his disciple Ananda visited
the valley and spent some time in Patan during the reign of
the seventh of the 28 Kirati kings.
The great
Indian emperor Ashoka, who was responsible for the spread
of Buddhism to various parts of Asia, is believed to have
visited Nepal in the 2nd century BCE. He erected
a pillar at the Buddha’s birthplace in Lumbini as well as
four stupas near Patan. His daughter Charumati
is believed to have founded Chabahil, a village between Kathmandu
and Bodhnath, which has now been swallowed up by the capital.
Kirati
rule over Nepal ended around 300 CE (common era) but the Rais
and the Limbus – inhabitants of eastern Nepal – are believed
to be the descendents of the former rulers.
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| The
Licchavis |
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The
Kiratis were followed by the Licchavi dynasty. These kings of
high-caste Hindu origin ruled from about A.D. 330 to 700. Although
they brought in the caste divisions that are evident even today,
they were tolerant, non-sectarian rulers who supported both
Hindu as well as Buddhist temples. In fact, they ushered in
a golden age of Nepali art and architecture as the numerous
fine sculptures and delicately carved chaitya from their
era prove.
It was
during the reign of King Manadeva I (A.D. 462-505) that the
political and military strength of Nepal was established.
He shook off the domination of India’s Gupta Empire and extended
his kingdom from the Kosi River in the east to the Gandaki
River in the west and from the Terai to the Himalayan passes.
The valley
became an important Himalayan trading center. Trade and farming
boomed. Its geographical location on the border between the
great cultures of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia
contributed to the establishment of a rich social fabric with
influences as diverse as Indian, Himalayan, Tibetan, Chinese,
Hindu, Buddhist, animist, and Tantric. It also became an important
center of Buddhist study where Indian, Tibetan, Nepali and
Chinese scholars and monks met and exchanged knowledge.
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| The
Thakuris |
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Amsuvarman,
the first Thakuri king, came to power in 602 CE, when he succeeded
his Licchavi father-in-law. Known as a wise and learned ruler,
he married his daughter Bhrikuti to Srongtsen Gampo, the ruler
of Tibet. A few years later, Bhrikuti and her Chinese co-wife
converted Srongtsen Gampo to Buddhism. Bhrikuti is venerated
as the incarnation of Tibetan Buddhism’s Green Tara, and the
Chinese co-wife as White Tara. Both their images are prominent
themes on thangkas (Tibetan paintings on cloth) as well
as in Nepali Buddhist art.
Amsuvarman’s
was the first of three Thakuri dynasties. Although the centuries
that followed were politically troubled, the very location
of the Kathmandu Valley ensured its survival and growth. Modern
Kathmandu is believed to have been founded by Gunakamadeva
in the 10th century, when it was known as Kantipur.
His Kasthamandap (House of Wood) gave the city its new name
and can still be seen in Kathmandu’s Durbar Square.
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| The
Mallas |
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The
golden age of the Mallas (1201-1768) began with its first ruler
King Arideva. Although records relating to this dynasty are
more reliable than the earlier ones, the story of how it was
founded is still rooted in legend. Apparently Arideva was wrestling
when he received the news that he had just had a son. He instantly
awarded his son the title malla or wrestler and thus
founded the illustrious Malla dynasty.
Although
the Mallas were Hindus and followers of Shiva, they were famed
for their religious tolerance. As a result, the Himalayan
Tantric form of Buddhism flourished. On the other hand, the
Hindu caste system became more rigid. Hari Singh, one of the
best-known early Malla kings who ruled sometime between 1325
and 1330, institutionalized Taleju Bhawani as the royal goddess
of Nepal. Later, in the 18th century, Christian
missionaries were allowed to preach, thus becoming the first
Westerners to visit the valley.
The early
years of Malla rule saw a series of disasters ranging from
an earthquake to a Muslim invasion from Bengal and the destruction
of Patan in 1311. Thousands of people were killed. Refugees
poured in from India, where the destruction was more widespread.
As a result, small Rajput principalities were established
in the hills and mountains of Nepal. The country became divided
into 46 city-states that were often at war with each other.
However,
this age also saw the generation of vast amounts of wealth,
the completion of Nepal’s most important palaces, temples
and works of art, and the foundation of many current festivals
and customs. The rulers competed heavily with each other in
this respect. The three greatest towns – Kathmandu, Patan
and Bhaktapur – had powerful rulers who were great patrons
of art and culture. Efforts were focused around the Durbar
Squares close to the three main palaces. Temples and shrines
in stone, brick and wood encrusted with precious metals sprouted
everywhere. The rulers sponsored public dance performances
and instituted the chariot festivals of the three cities that
continue to this day. They placed a very strong emphasis on
studying music, literature and scientific mysteries, composing
poems and religious dance-dramas for public performance.
On the
down side, the rulers were often given to ridiculous excesses.
They gave their weight in gold and jewels, submerged idols
under offerings of oranges, donated 1,000 cows at a time,
all to gain religious merit. However, these actions also had
practical value. They resulted in the construction of water
taps (dhara), rest houses (sattal and pati)
and shady resting places for porters (chautara). This
concept of social giving became a fundamental aspect of Nepali
life and continued unchanged for centuries.
In 1372,
Jayasthiti Malla founded the third Malla dynasty and unified
the whole valley. When Yaksha Malla (1428-82) came to power,
the kingdom extended south to the Ganges River, north to the
edge of Tibet, west to the Kali Gandaki River and east to
Sikkim. Art and culture reached its peak during his reign.
After his death, however, the kingdom was split into warring
states again, and the constant tension opened the gates for
the arrival of a new dynasty.
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| The
Shahs |
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The
Shah dynasty had its beginnings in the tiny Gorkha kingdom,
halfway between Kathmandu and Pokhara. Like the Mallas, the
Shah princes had chosen to flee to Nepal from Rajasthan rather
than convert to Islam during the Muslim invasion. They gradually
extended their power with the ultimate vision of someday ruling
Kathmandu.
Modern
Nepali history really begins in 1768, when the ninth ruler,
Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered the valley and moved his capital
there, after 26 years of battles and sieges. This occurred
during the festival of Indra Jatra, when the ruling Newari
clan was too inebriated to put up a fight. Prithvi Narayan
Shah entered Kathmandu virtually unopposed. Patan fell soon
after. The following year Gorkha soldiers broke into the palace
of Bhaktapur, where they found the Newar rulers cowering in
terror. The Three Kingdoms were united again and the descendants
of King Prithvi Narayan Shah continue to rule to this day.
The power
of the Shah dynasty continued to expand until 1792, during
the reign of Prithvi Narayan Shah’s son, when the Nepalis
were defeated during a clash with the Chinese in Tibet. A
treaty was signed, whereby the Nepalis had to stop their attacks
on Tibet and pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in Beijing.
The payments continued until 1912.
In the
meanwhile, the British were consolidating their own power
in the subcontinent. A British envoy arrived in Kathmandu
in 1792. It was too late to aid the Nepalis against the Chinese,
and the former continued expanding their boundaries. By the
early 19th century, the Nepalis held everything
from Kashmir to Sikkim, a fact that was bound to cause tension
with the Raj.
The British
invaded Nepal from India for the first time in 1814, but were
repulsed by the king’s fighting soldiers from Gorkha, thus
earning all subsequent Nepali soldiers the name of “Gurkhas”.
They were luckier the second time around when disputes over
the Terai led to war again. Nepal was about twice its current
size in 1810, but the 1816 Sugauli Treaty following the second
battle with the British ended its growth. The hill kingdom
lost Sikkim and most of the Terai to Britain and its present-day
eastern and western borders were established at that time.
A British representative was set up in Kathmandu – the first
Western envoy to the country, and for the next century, the
only one. Some of the land it had lost during the war was
restored to Nepal in 1858, when the country was ruled by the
Ranas, as a reward for its support for the British during
the Indian War of Independence.
The Sugauli
Treaty opened new business opportunities for India and Nepal.
However, a century later, when direct trade routes were established
between Tibet and India, Nepal began to lose out on its position
as intermediary between the two countries. The British resident
who was sent to Kathmandu to keep an eye on things was ignored
almost completely. Even the plot of land he lived on was considered
a disease-prone haven for evil spirits. The defeat against
the British rankled the Nepalis so much that they shut off
all contact with outsiders from 1816 to 1951.
Although
Nepal retreated from the rest of the world, the foreign community
still had eyes on Nepal. The British were so impressed by
the courage and daring of the Gurkhas that they brought the
latter as mercenaries into the British army. Although their
importance to the British army is decreasing now, the Gurkhas
were a major force to reckon with until as recently as 1982,
when they spread fear among the Argentineans during the Falklands
War. The earnings of Gurkha troops are an important source
of income for Nepal. Even today, countries and individuals
such as the Sultan of Brunei are happy to pay for their soldiering
abilities.
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| The
Ranas |
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Nepal is
proud of never having been colonized by a foreign power, but
for 104 years, it was ruled by a dynasty considered more despotic
than the British Empire ever was. The Rana dynasty, founded
by the dashing Jung Bahadur Rana (nee Kunwar) took ambition
to new heights. After assassinating his own uncle, Jung Bahadur
ordered the notorious Kot Massacre of 1846, in which over a
hundred courtiers were slaughtered. He deposed the weak Shah
ruler and placed the young crown prince as a figurehead on the
throne. He proclaimed himself Prime Minister, then maharaja,
made the post hereditary, and adopted the name Rana, based on
a claim to descent from Indian Rajput royalty. Having thus improved
his caste, he proceeded to intermarry his many children with
members of the Shah royalty, thereby increasing his personal
and political connections. For
the next century, the Shah kings were indulged but kept away
from active politics. The Ranas, in the mean time, treated the
country like their private estate. The people lived in poverty
as national revenues went into supporting the luxurious lifestyles
of the rulers. Living conditions were medieval. Progress was
viewed with suspicion and a threat to the rulers. As a result,
there was no public education, medical care or transportation
beyond porters and foot-tracks. There was one hospital and one
college. Both these institutions were viewed as personal gifts
of the rulers. Until as recently as 1951, when Nepal finally
opened its borders to the outside world, the national literacy
rate was 2 per cent.
To their
credit, however, the Ranas abolished sati (the practice
of burning widows on their husband’s funeral pyres) and ended
forced labor.
In 1850,
Jung Bahadur defied Hindu caste laws by sailing to England
to visit Queen Victoria. He was so impressed by the glory
of Europe that he returned to construct the Thapathali palace
that was destroyed in the 1934 earthquake. His infatuation
with European baroque had a far-reaching impact on the Kathmandu
landscape. Elaborate palaces were constructed from clay, brick
and plaster. Carrera marble, Belgian chandeliers, gilded mirrors
and furniture were imported from Europe and carried over the
mountains by sweating teams of porters. Singha Durbar, built
by Prime Minister Chandra Shamsher in 1901, was one of the
greatest palaces, and once the largest in Southeast Asia.
It had 17 interlocking courtyards containing 1,700 rooms,
each glittering with marble, crystal and showy furniture.
Hunting
(shikar) in the private game reserve of Chitwan was
a favorite pastime. The Ranas bagged incredible numbers of
endangered species. Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher alone shot
433 tigers, 53 rhinos and 93 leopards over the course of seven
seasons.
The Ranas
developed a close relationship with the British, based on
the understanding that they would supply high-performance
Gurkha mercenaries to the British in exchange for non-interference
in their internal affairs.
Dramatic
changes began taking place in the region after the Second
World War. India gained its independence and China annexed
Tibet. This sent thousands of Tibetan refugees into Nepal,
which became a buffer zone between the two Asian giants. Nepal
could not stay oblivious to this upheaval for long. One Rana
tried to move towards a more liberal political system. Another
was in favor of giving the center greater control. Finally,
the Nepali Congress Party was established under the charismatic
B.P Koirala, with support from the ruling Indian Congress
Party, many Nepalis, and even some members of the Rana family.
The Rana
era ended when King Tribhuvan re-established Shah dynastic
rule in 1951. Now facing hard times, members of the Rana family
sold off their old palaces, many of which have been converted
into government offices or hotels. Others like Singha Durbar
were demolished or devastated by fire. However, the Ranas
have not lost their influence completely. Many of them are
still active in the military and the present king and queen
are both descendents of Jung Bahadur Rana.
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| End
of Rana Rule |
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In
1950, King Tribhuvan took refuge in the Indian Embassy and later
fled to New Delhi. The British were no longer in the picture,
and deprived of their greatest ally, the Ranas needed only the
slightest push to fall apart. King Tribhuvan returned to Nepal
in 1951 as ruler of his country and presided over a coalition
government.
King Mahendra
succeeded his father King Tribhuvan, upon his death in 1955.
The country’s first free elections were held in 1957, but
in 1959, King Mahendra declared a state of emergency, dissolved
the elected government, arrested leading politicians and outlawed
political parties. He then assumed responsibility for government
under a new Constitution, swapping his ceremonial role for
real control.
The new
arrangement – the Panchayat system – was upheld for the next
30 years. Local panchayats or councils chose representatives
to district panchayats, which in turn were represented at
the National Panchayat. The real power was still held by the
king, who directly chose 16 members of the 35-member National
Panchayat, and appointed the Prime Minister and his cabinet.
As elections were indirect, the population had only a limited
say in political affairs. Political abuse, corruption and
suppression of dissent continued, and served to fuel a growing
sense of opposition.
King Birendra
came to power in 1972, following the death of his father King
Mahendra. He believed that Nepal had the right political system,
but in 1979, the discontent that had been smoldering for decades
finally exploded into violent riots in Kathmandu. Following
the incident, King Birendra announced that a referendum would
be held to choose between the panchayat system and one that
would permit political parties to function. The result of
the 1980 referendum was 55 per cent to 45 per cent in favor
of the panchayat system.
However,
the king had also declared that irrespective of the result
of the referendum, the people would elect the country’s legislature
for a five-year period, which in turn would elect the Prime
Minister. The king would personally appoint 20 per cent of
the legislature. Further, all candidates would have to be
members of one of six government-approved organizations and
contest under their own names rather than as representatives
of a particular party. The first elections under this system
were held in 1981.
Although
the panchayat system did not appear dictatorial on the surface
– it allowed a secret vote and universal suffrage – it was
one of the least publicly accountable in the world, and was
subject to strict censorship. Mass arrests, torture and beatings
of suspected activists have been well documented, and leaders
of the opposition – the Nepali Congress – were frequently
imprisoned.
The king
wielded considerable power until early 1990. The Constitution
guaranteed his supremacy. The aristocracy in general, also
retained a large amount of influence and wealth.
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| People
Power and Democracy |
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The
Jana Andolan or People’s Movement of 1989 was a coalition of
opposition parties fighting for multi-party democracy with the
king as the constitutional head of state. It was a popular movement
motivated partly by economic problems caused by an Indian government
blockade, and partly by widespread discontent with the existing
system.
In February
1990, non-violent groups of protestors were met by tear gas,
bullets, arrests and torture by the government machinery.
Rioting, curfews and strikes continued for the next few months.
Eventually, the government was forced to back down. Victory
did not come cheap – approximately 300 people were killed
during the episodes that preceded the changes.
The king
lifted the ban on national radio on 9 April. Then, the ban
on political parties was lifted on 16 April, when the opposition
was asked to lead the interim government. The king also announced
his readiness to accept the role of constitutional monarch.
A new
Constitution was drafted. It defined Nepal as a ‘multi-lingual,
multi-ethnic, democratic, independent, indivisible, sovereign,
Hindu, and constitutional Monarchical Kingdom’ with the king
as the symbol of national unity and the constitutional monarch.
Elections held in April 1991 installed a 205-member House
of representatives. The Nepal Congress Party won the majority,
while the Nepal Communist Party-UML (United Marxist-Leninist)
and smaller parties took over as the opposition.
The political
situation was uneasy during the next few years after the election.
Large groups of the population had developed unrealistic expectations
of the new system, and were taken aback by the political infighting
and rising cost of living. The discontent increased in direct
proportion to the rising economic pressure. In April 1992,
a general strike degenerated into street violence that resulted
in a number of deaths.
The mid-term
election of 1994 led to the establishment of a coalition government
consisting of the CPP-UML and the RPP (Rastriya Prajatantra
Party, the old panchayats), with the support of the Nepali
Congress. It was one of the few instances of a communist government
coming to power by popular vote. The party was well organized
and began consolidating support at the grassroots level. However,
political stability still proved elusive, and within nine
months, a new government was formed by the Congress and the
RPP.
Nepali democracy
in the late 1990s was characterized by change. Coalitions were
formed and broken, and governments came and went. However, democracy
also instilled a sense of national pride and optimism in the
population, particularly among the educated sections. In recent
years, there have been great efforts to develop natural resources.
The number of hydro-electric dams, roads, schools and health
posts is multiplying. Tourism is the most important source of
foreign exchange, and provides income to Nepalis both in mountain
villages and urban hotels. The number of fascinated visitors
continues to increase and those this poses its own problems,
it hasn’t spoiled the warmth and friendliness of the Nepali
people, surely among the friendliest people on earth.
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